Ethnobotanical Characteristics

Description

Tree, up to 6m. branches drooping, bluish-green, leafless for most of the year. Leaves coming out at the beginning of the flowering season, 2-3-pinnate, alternate, up to 30cm long; leaflets opposite, 10-20mm oblong. Flowers pink, in large panicles, fragrant. Sepals and petals 5. Fruit 10-30cm, cylindrical, dehiscing by 3 valves.  It is a small graceful tree growing up to about 10m, with narrow, pendulous branches. It is often leafless but the leaves when present are large and pinnately-divided into almost liner, blue-green leaflets. The fruits are narrowly cylindrical, up to about 30cm long, and marked with deep longitudinal grooves.  

Habitat and Distribution

Moringa peregrina is distributed in North East equatorial Africa, throughout Arabia and as far north as Syria. Usually grows in mountain slopes up to 800 m; very common in the UAE at low to intermediate elevations, especially in Ruus Al Jibal, where it is dominant tree on steep slopes; also scattered throughout Fujairah at higher altitudes, and on upper flanks of Jebel Hafit (Gazanfar, 1994; Western, 1989).

Part(s) Used

Seeds and oil obtained from seed

Traditional and Medicinal Uses

Oil (hal al shu’) is traditionally used to treat headache, fever, abdominal pain and constipation, burns, back and muscle pains and during labor in childbirth. The pure oil is used for headache, fever, burns, lacerations and bone fractures. It is also applied to relieve stiffness in the back and other muscle pain and on the scalp to cure dryness. Cosmetically, the oil is used on the body and face to soften skin or taken internally for constipation and abdominal pain. Leaf extract is rubbed over skin to soothe rash. 
The bean oil has been used by the Egyptians since old and middle kingdoms.  In the north of Oman, oil extracted from the pods was used in the treatment of infantile paralysis or infantile convulsions, and in the Yemen the same oil was used as an unguent. Early Greek physicians recommended the use of Moringa to treat ailments of the stomach, leprosy, pustules on the face and for the relief of itching. An early Muslim source speaks of the oil extracted from the pods being used in perfumery, and the material remaining from the extraction of the oil being beneficial in the treatment of various skin ailments, as well as in the removal of freckles and in the treatment of itching. An extraction was prescribed for encouraging facial and head hair to grow long and strong, and to treat nosebleeds as well as diseased teeth and gums. (Gazanfar, 1994, Batanouny, 1999, Miller, 1988). 

Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry

General appearance

hick branches are almost cylindrical in outline. They are covered with a dark violet brown bark and the hard wood is light yellow in colour. The small branches and twigs are slender, cylindrical, and brittle and they are light violet brown in colour.

Microscopical characteristics

A sectional view through the branch shows that the epidermal layer is composed of rounded or slightly square shaped cells with thick cell walls underlain by many layers of yellow cortical compressed small parenchyma cells, which are underlain by layers of larger yellow distorted cortical parenchyma cells interrupted by groups of isolated lignified fibers. These cells also enclose isolated vascular tissues whose xylem vessels and tracheids are heavily lignified. The parenchyma of the xylem tissues is large and oblong in shapes and they contain characteristic large orange masses that separate into solution as oblong entities. The central zone is occupied by large parenchyma of the pith which is rounded or oblong in shape, with pitted cell walls. These cells are quite rich in translucent rounded masses.

Powdered plant material

The material consists of a yellowish-green, fine powder of the branches. It has an acrid, somewhat astringent taste, reminiscent of dried wheat leaf powder and an odour like that of dried straw powder. Microscopically, the powder shows large oblong orange masses free or contained in the large oblong parenchyma cells of the xylem tissues. Also shown are the pith large rounded and oblong cells with pitted cell walls, in addition to groups of long fibers.

Parts studied

stem

• A. Surface of the stem epidermis from below showing the rounded or slightly square-shaped cells.
• B. A surface view of the stem in an oblique way showing the rounded or square-shaped parenchyma cells to follow an ordered pattern of straight lines as if they were forming narrow oblong cellular arrangements.
• C. The characteristic large orange masses that separate as oblong entities from the large parenchyma of the xylem tissues. 

Chemical constituents

The fatty acids composition in extracted oil from the seeds is as follows: palmitic 9.3%, palmitoleic 2.4%, stearic 3.5%, oleic 78.0%, linoleic 0.6%, linolenic 1.6%, arachidic 1.8% and behenic 2.6% (Somali, 1984). Aerial parts contain flavonoid compounds: quercetin, quercetin-3-O-rutinoside (rutin), chrysoeriol-7-O-rhamnoside and 6, 8,3´,5´-tetramethoxy apigenin (Seham, 1984). Flavonoids, tannins, sterols and \or triterpenes and saponins are reported from the aerial parts (Al-Yahya 1990).Six active constituents: lupeol acetate, α-amyrin, β-amyrin, β-sitosterol, β-sitosterol-3-O-β-D-glucoside and apigenin are also reported from aerial parts( Abdel-Rahman, 2010).

The following chemical studies have been carried out on the seeds of the plant Moringa peregrine (Quality Control methods, 1998; Evans, 1996, ZCHRTM unpublished work) 

Physicochemical constants 

Loss of weight in drying at 105°C :                                             11.20
Absolute alcohol solubility            :                                              7.20
Water solubility :                                                                         16.00

Successive extractives (%)

Petroleum ether (60-80) °C :                                                        3.05
Chloroform :                                                                                 2.40
Absolute alcohol :                                                                        10.35
Successive aqueous extract :                                                      11.55

Ash values (%)

Total ash :                                                                                      7.33
Water soluble ash :                                                                       3.67
Acid insoluble ash (10% HCl) :                                                      Nil 

pH values (aqueous solution)

pH of 1% solution :                                                                        5.362-5.382
pH of 10% solution :                                                                      4.932-4.936

Elemental analyses

Ash values (British Herbal Pharmacopeia)
Assay and identification of element (AOAC International)

Apparatus		AA-6800 Shimadzu-Flame method
Element	Std. conc. µg/ml	Sample conc.mg/ml	Sample absorbance	Actual conc.mg/ml	Actual conc. (%)
Cr	1, 2, 4	10	0.0077	0.00688	0.000688
Zn	0.25, 0.5, 1	10	0.0576	0.01022	0.001022
Cu	1, 2, 4	10	0.0209	0.00933	0.000933
Fe	1, 2, 4	10	0.2948	0.2088	0.02088
K	1, 2, 4	0.5	0.5459	19.7568	1.97568
Pb	1, 2, 4	10	0.0492	0.00492	0.000492
Cd	0.25, 0.5, 1	10	0.0000	0.0000	0.0000
Ca	5, 10, 20	10	0.0434	1.39316	0.139316

1ppm conc. = 1µg/ml; Actual conc. (%) =Actual conc.(ppm)x0.0001 [1ppm=0.0001%]

UV Spectral studies

Ultraviolet Spectrum (USP reference)
Apparatus	Milton Roy Spectronic Genesys 5 Spectrophotometer - Milton Roy.
Sample conc. (mg / ml)	Solvent	λ max (nm)	λ min (nm)	Abs.( λ max - λ min)
1.255	Intestinal Fluid simulated without pancreatic pH=7.50.1	277	259	1.148 - 0.890
1	Gastric Fluid simulated without pepsin pH =1.20.1	280 229	259 -	1.175 - 0.856 3.444

Chromatographical Studies

Thin layer chromatography (TLC): Wagner and Bladt, 1996

 

 

TLC fingerprint of Petroleum ether 60-80°C (track 1) and MeOH extract (track 2)

Mobile phase Fig.	A&D	:	Ethyl acetate, methanol, water (100:13.5:10)
	B	:	Toluene, ethyl acetate (93:7)
	C	:	Toluene, ethyl formate, formic acid (5:4:1)
Detection	A	:	UV 254nm
Derivatization	B, C&D	:	Vanillin-Sulphuric acid-vis

The toxicological and pharmacological Studies

Based on published research, Moringa oleifera is one of the important medicinal plant known  for a wide range of pharmacological activities (Mossa, 1985; William 1993) including anti-diabetic activity (Kar, 1999) , hepato-protective activity (Ruckmani, 1998); anticancer activity (Murakami, 1998; Guevara,  1999; Gupta et al., 1997);  Anti-Mutagenic potential (Grabow, 1985);  Antiepileptic activity (Guevara, 1999); Antibacterial activity (Rajendhran,1998; Singha,  1993; Spiliotis, 1998; Caceres, 1991);  Antifungal activity (Nwosu, 1995);  Antipyretic activity (Singh, 1999); Hypotensive activity (Faizi, 1992; 1998); Steroid depressed healing and regulation of thyroid hormone levels (Udupa,1998; Tahiliani, 1999); Antispasmodic, anti-inflammatory and diuretic activities (Caceres, 1992; Udupa, 1994; Ezeamuzie , 1996); Anti-fertility activity (Mathur, 1988); CNS stimulant (Gupta , 1999); and  in the treatment of pyoderma (Caceres , 1991).
Makkar, (1996) and Gupta, (1989) studied the plant nutritional of Moringa oleifera leaves and pods and found to be extremely valuable source of nutrition for people of all ages. For a child aged 1-3, a 100-gram serving of fresh leaves would provide all the daily requirements of calcium, about 75% of iron and half the total protein needs, as well as potassium, B complex vitamins, copper and all the essential amino acids. As little as 20 grams of fresh leaves would provide a child with all the vitamins A and C needed. 
For pregnant and breast-feeding women, Moringa leaves and pods preserve the mother's health and pass on strength to the fetus or nursing child.  For both infants and mothers, pods can be an important source of fiber, potassium, copper, iron, choline, vitamin C and all the essential amino acids. The high concentrations of iron, protein, copper, various vitamins and essential amino acids present in Moringa leaves make it virtually ideal nutritional supplement. 
The following pharmacological and safety evaluation studies were carried out on the plant extract of Moringa peregrina (Aerial parts) (Derelanko 2002; Han, 2003).

ACTIVITY	RESULTS
	Strong	Moderate	Mild	Negative
Analgesic (Writhing)		√
Antidepressant				√
Anti-gastric ulcer activity	√
Cyto-protective activity	√
Anti-inflammatory (Ear edema)			√
Anti-inflammatory (cotton pellet)		√
Anti-stress (Swim endurance test)		√
Anti-diabetic activity (STZ & GTT)			√
Effect on rabbit jejunum		√
Effect on rat fundus	√
Effect on Guinea pig ileum		√
Effect on Guinea pig tracheal chain				√
Effect on rat aorta	√
Anesthetized rat (BP & HR) ↓	√
Erectile activity (corpus cavernous strip)		√
Sexual stimulant (ICP)		√
Uterotropic				√
Hepato-protective activity	√
Hematological studies (WBC & MCHC) ↓			√
Locomotor activity test			√
Motor co-ordination (grip strength & motor activity				√
Rectal temperature				√
Body weight				√
Plasma glucose				√
Effect on Urine				√
Mortality				√
LD50	> 5G/KG

Summary of results

The aqueous extract of Moringa peregrina (Aerial parts) showed moderate anti-inflammatory activity following single dose administration. The plant extract showed positive mild analgesic activity, Antidiarrheal activity. The plant extract showed very significant antigastric ulcer activity.   
 The plant extract showed positive anti-diabetic activity. The extract was found effective as Anti-depressant. The plant extract was screened for sexual stimulant potential showed increased erectile activity and positive cardio tonic activity. The plant extract was studied for hepato-protection, showed significant protective action made evident by its effect on the levels of liver enzymes.
The LD50 studied in mice was >5 g/kg showing the safety of the plant. The plant extract showed no toxic signs and no mortality was recorded.

Antimicrobial activity

The aqueous extract of the whole plant was tested against Mycobacterium smegmatis, C. tropicalis, Streptococcus pyogenes, different strains of Staphylococcus aureus (Including ATCC 257), different strains of Methicillin Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), different strains of E. coli (Including ATCC UN 109), different strains of ESBL-producing K. pneumonia, E. coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa. The extract showed very strong antibacterial.

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